Social Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Social Science - Essay Example The average teenager of the 21st century has turned sexually active much earlier than his predecessors. Premarital sex, it would seem, is increasingly a way of life for youth; even if it comes with the risk of pregnancy, abortion, AIDS, sexual diseases and mental conflicts. How does it begin and how does it end? Pre-marital sex in the far distant past was defined as sex with one person, which ultimately resulted in marriage. In today’s context however, premarital sex leads to month long relationships. Sex with many men/women before finally finding someone to ‘settle down with’ is the norm. Alcohol and drugs are some factors for sex that takes place on campus. There are other reasons too. The peer pressure to indulge in premarital sex is one. And then there is the internet, supplying our teenage world with all the sexual material it needs. Pornography, chat rooms, and a zillion other sites are distributing sex freely. Porn is easily accessible these days with the Internet, the Cyber cafes and the VCD parlors doing brisk business with pirated CDs. A random survey of ten of these parlors revealed that most of the business in some of the shops comes from the porn CDs’ rather than the regular movie CDs. Judging then from the popular sentiments, today’s youth believes that premarital sex is not a crime. Technology has brought in a sexual revolution. The Internet helps access so much of material on sex. All for free. This I think has contributed to the sexual awareness. There is also a lot of misinformation around.   Sex is one of the most powerful forces in our lives and we repress it at our own cost. If you let people do what they want to do, they will have sex. Period. The only exception is if people have a biological problem or have been thoroughly brainwashed, to withhold sex until marriage. Premarital sex is a huge problem in society today; the numbers are staggering.

History of Computers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History of Computers - Essay Example The study would even outline trend of computer science profession in next 10 years. The beginning stage of computers has its roots in 19th century. Its history is closely knitted with an English mathematics professor called as Charles Babbage. He was able to frame the design of an analytical machine. On basis of this framework computers are being designed in present scenario. Computers can briefly be categorized into three generations. Each generation basically lasts for a specific time frame. These generations individually has delivered improved and new computer or rather further modifications on existing ones. First generation was from 1937 to 1946. Electronic digital computer firstly was designed in 1937 by Clifford Berry and Dr. John V, Atanasoff. It was known as ABC or Atanasoff-Berry Computer. During 1943 for military purpose an electronic computer was designed called as Colossus. It was followed by wide range of other developments encompassing general purpose digital computer. This device was also known as Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer or ENIA C. It was stated that this computer had a total of 18,000 vacuum tubes and weighed 30 tons. These were mainly used for purpose of processing. Computers belonging to this generation were able to perform only one task at a time and possessed no such operating system. Second generation can be outlined from 1947 to 1962. In this generation vacuum tubes were discarded and transistors were utilized due to high reliability. The first computer mainly for commercial usage was introduced in 1951 and this was called as UNIVAC 1 or Universal Automatic Computer. IBM or International Business Machine 700 and 650 series had set their mark in world of computers. In this generation particularly more than 100 programming languages were created. This generation computers possessed operating systems and memory (Dale and Lewis, 2007). Storage media like disk and tape were effectively used along with

Indigenous Peoples of the Americas and Brand New Way Essay Example for Free

Indigenous Peoples of the Americas and Brand New Way Essay Indigenous people are those that are native to an area. Throughout the world, there are many groups or tribes of people that have been taken over by the Europeans in their early conquests throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by immigrating groups of individuals, and by greedy corporate businesses trying to take their land. The people indigenous to Australia, Brazil and South America, and Hawaii are currently fighting for their rights as people: the rights to own land, to be free from prejudice, and to have their lands protected from society. Indigenous People of Brazil and South America The people indigenous to Brazil and South America are an extremely noteworthy group. The Brazilian population originally derives from four ethnic sources. From the beginning, the country has been a mixture of many races of people. Of these, are the native Indians, the colonizing Portuguese, the enslaved African blacks, and the various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia. Many of the indigenous tribes are quarreling with Brazils officials and businesses. Rainforests are depleting at a rapid rate and, as they are a home to many indigenous tribes, is causing great turmoil. Although the Constitution of 1988 claims to recognize the indians original land rights to the lands they traditionally occupy and promise that these lands will be demarcated and protected, the Government Agency Funai is charged with the demarcation of of nearly fifty percent of the lands(PeaceNet). The report claims that, in reality, most most indian lands whether demarcated or not are coveted for some form of development. This claim is substantiated by the fact that mineral concessions have been made on fifty-eight percent of all demarcated indian lands, while thirteen percent are affected by hydroelectric projects, (PeaceNet) The link between global environmental change and the rights of indigenous populations results from the close relationship between indigenous peoples cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings. Therefore, if the environment of the native Indians of Brazil continues to be changed and removed, the people born on these lands will be exterminated out of existence. Additionally, many societal views of the indigenous people is killing them. The Amnesty International report, as commented upon by PeaceNet cites one occasion in which a thirty-five year old Macuxi Indian by the name of Damiao Mendes was found lying face down on a muddy riverbank, shot in the neck. Nearby lay his nineteen year-old nephew, murdered by the same means. Opposition from local ranchers stalled the demarcation of the land belonging to the Macuxi Indians. The Macuxi are a group whose ancestral lands lie on the plains of Roraima. The Indians claim to the land has resulted in the attacks, and thusfar have forced many to abandon the ancestral grasslands. The report continues, Damaio Mendes and Mario Davis were killed for land. The investigation into the killing was cursory. No one has been brought to justice. Dozens of Indians in Brazil have been murdered in similar circumstances. One group, the leaders of the Mexica Movement, accuse Europeans of invading their lands in 1492 and and 1519, and breaking up our lands that they call Mexico(1821), Central America(1823), and the U. S. Southwest(Texas in 1836 and the rest in 1848). (Mexica, 2) They also point out that In the last 500 years, in addition to the theft of our lands, we have seen the destruction of of our Anahuac cities, the execution of our leaders, the genocide if 23 million of our people (95% of our population killed), the theft of our wealth, the theft of out labor, and most importantly, the theft of our true Anahuac identity, history, heritage, and theology. They point out many of the successes of the Anahuac civilization, including developed sciences, agriculture, philosophies, all of the civilized arts, and three cities larger than Europes largest city. Powerful phrases are used, such as racial rape and cultural castration of our population, and claim that the the influx of Europeans caused the Anahuac to become a society riddled with ignorance, poor education, low-self-esteem, poverty, crime, gangs, dropouts, lack of indigenous representation, and and an inferiority complex of the worst kind: the self-hate of an entire people. The Mexica Movement believes that the best way to solve this problem that they, as a society, are faced with, is to provide knowledge of its history and true heritage. They believe that Knowledge, vision, courage, and perseverance will change our people into an authentically proud people, and a revived creative world force We will hold our heads and hearts proudly. We will happily know who we are. Indigenous People of Australia The Aborigines are an indigenous group from Australia. They were the first human inhabitants of this land. The word Aborigine is actually from Latin language, meaning from the beginning. The Europeans gave this name to native Australians, but this is not what they call themselves. They prefer to be called Koori (Ponnamperuma). They adapted to their environment well: the people in the colder southeast tended to be short and thick-set which was useful for conserving body heat, and the people in the hot desert were taller and lean. The Aboriginals lived solely by hunting and food gathering. Each group accumulated detailed knowledge of the habits, cycles, and and food values of the plants, insects reptiles, marsupials, and fish found in its area, developing methods and equipment for obtaining them and, when necessary, for making them edible. The behavior of one insect, plant, or animal was a sign the condition or appearance of certain others, each in its own place in time. When one population group of natives increased beyond the number that could live within practical range, some of its members moved to the next unoccupied area, and still held kinship, social, economic, and ritual ties with the original group. By this process, all of Australia was occupied. The basic part of Aboriginal life was complete dependence on nature and on intelligent adaptation through knowledge and skill. This equilibrium between the native people and nature was hugely upset by European settlements beginning in 1788. The better lands were seized, and the food-gathering, theology, and social activities were stringently changed. The groups located near white settlements became more on an unbalanced diet furnished by whites. The inevitable result was the economic decline of the native people. The Aboriginals did, however, adjust to their new environment. For example, some Aboriginals in the northern cattle area were employed as stockmen. The Australian Federal Government is working along with natives to employ gradual self-determination and consultation in decision making. (Altman) However, continuing impoverished lifestyles of many groups of Aboriginals continues to be a problem. Education is poor and housing is inadequate(Real Borges 5 World). They received the right to vote in 1967, and are continuing to be successful in continuously demanding their rights as people (Ponnamperuma). Indigenous People of Hawaii In 1893, the United States Government along with U. S. Minister John L. Stevens, through covert operations, overthrew the Hawaiian monarch led by Queen Liliuokalani and helped to establish a Provisional Government which took full possession of all government functions and buildings of the Hawaiian islands. That same year, President Grover Cleveland submitted to Congress a full report that condemned the role of the American minister and the U. S. Marines and called for a restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy. In 1898, Congress ignored President Clevelands previous request and brought into the Union the Hawaiian Islands through the Newlands Resolution This was legally questioned as to whether the U. S. Congress had authority to admit territory into the Union because it is not specified that it had right to acquire land other than through conquest or treaty. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) realizes that the actions taken by the U. S. are illegal and thus are the basis for their legal claims for the restoration of human, civil, property, and sovereign rights of Hawaiis indigenous people. The JACL believes that the unlawful overthrow holds special significance, as it has neither been addressed nor remedied for over a century. This loss of self-rule, according to the JACL remains an important cultural and political factor today (Costanha). Additionally, the JACL believes that unresolved justice to one is harm endured by all full range or consideration of Hawaiis peoples rights and freedoms must be completely explored in order to bring about harmony within Hawaiis society,(Costanha). The JACL Many Hawaiians are bitter about the current hip Hawaiian culture, with hula girls and surfers. Many believe that they are being exploited, including one of the leaders of the native Hawaiians sovereignty movement, Haunani-Kay Trask (Nakao, 1). There are two proposed plans for a sovereign Hawaii. One is the nation within a nation model in which 4. 2 million square acres are set aside as Hawaiian homeland and residents pay taxes to elected Hawaiian representatives. The United States would still be in charge of defense and most legal matters, but Hawaii would have control over its land and resources. The other plan is that of complete sovereignty, in which Hawaii holds complete rule. The countries of Brazil and Australia and the state of Hawaii all have things in common: internal conflict, one group thriving at the bottom of a social hierarchy, and that same group fighting for their rights. These groups need and deserve to be given the land that Europeans have taken from them, and also should be treated equally. Indigenous People Indigenous people are those that are native to an area. Throughout the world, there are many groups or tribes of people that have been taken over by the Europeans in their early conquests throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by immigrating groups of individuals, and by greedy corporate businesses trying to take their land. The people indigenous to Australia, Brazil and South America, and Hawaii are currently fighting for their rights as people: the rights to own land, to be free from prejudice, and to have their lands protected from society. Indigenous People of Brazil and South America The people indigenous to Brazil and South America are an extremely noteworthy group. The Brazilian population originally derives from four ethnic sources. From the beginning, the country has been a mixture of many races of people. Of these, are the native Indians, the colonizing Portuguese, the enslaved African blacks, and the various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia. Many of the indigenous tribes are quarreling with Brazils officials and businesses. Rainforests are depleting at a rapid rate and, as they are a home to many indigenous tribes, is causing great turmoil. Although the Constitution of 1988 claims to recognize the indians original land rights to the lands they traditionally occupy and promise that these lands will be demarcated and protected, the Government Agency Funai is charged with the demarcation of of nearly fifty percent of the lands(PeaceNet). The report claims that, in reality, most most indian lands whether demarcated or not are coveted for some form of development. This claim is substantiated by the fact that mineral concessions have been made on fifty-eight percent of all demarcated indian lands, while thirteen percent are affected by hydroelectric projects, (PeaceNet) The link between global environmental change and the rights of indigenous populations results from the close relationship between indigenous peoples cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings. Therefore, if the environment of the native Indians of Brazil continues to be changed and removed, the people born on these lands will be exterminated out of existence. Additionally, many societal views of the indigenous people is killing them. The Amnesty International report, as commented upon by PeaceNet cites one occasion in which a thirty-five year old Macuxi Indian by the name of Damiao Mendes was found lying face down on a muddy riverbank, shot in the neck. Nearby lay his nineteen year-old nephew, murdered by the same means. Opposition from local ranchers stalled the demarcation of the land belonging to the Macuxi Indians. The Macuxi are a group whose ancestral lands lie on the plains of Roraima. The Indians claim to the land has resulted in the attacks, and thusfar have forced many to abandon the ancestral grasslands. The report continues, Damaio Mendes and Mario Davis were killed for land. The investigation into the killing was cursory. No one has been brought to justice. Dozens of Indians in Brazil have been murdered in similar circumstances. One group, the leaders of the Mexica Movement, accuse Europeans of invading their lands in 1492 and and 1519, and breaking up our lands that they call Mexico(1821), Central America(1823), and the U. S. Southwest(Texas in 1836 and the rest in 1848). (Mexica, 2) They also point out that In the last 500 years, in addition to the theft of our lands, we have seen the destruction of of our Anahuac cities, the execution of our leaders, the genocide if 23 million of our people (95% of our population killed), the theft of our wealth, the theft of out labor, and most importantly, the theft of our true Anahuac identity, history, heritage, and theology. They point out many of the successes of the Anahuac civilization, including developed sciences, agriculture, philosophies, all of the civilized arts, and three cities larger than Europes largest city. Powerful phrases are used, such as racial rape and cultural castration of our population, and claim that the the influx of Europeans caused the Anahuac to become a society riddled with ignorance, poor education, low-self-esteem, poverty, crime, gangs, dropouts, lack of indigenous representation, and and an inferiority complex of the worst kind: the self-hate of an entire people. The Mexica Movement believes that the best way to solve this problem that they, as a society, are faced with, is to provide knowledge of its history and true heritage. They believe that Knowledge, vision, courage, and perseverance will change our people into an authentically proud people, and a revived creative world force We will hold our heads and hearts proudly. We will happily know who we are. Indigenous People of Australia The Aborigines are an indigenous group from Australia. They were the first human inhabitants of this land. The word Aborigine is actually from Latin language, meaning from the beginning. The Europeans gave this name to native Australians, but this is not what they call themselves. They prefer to be called Koori (Ponnamperuma). They adapted to their environment well: the people in the colder southeast tended to be short and thick-set which was useful for conserving body heat, and the people in the hot desert were taller and lean. The Aboriginals lived solely by hunting and food gathering. Each group accumulated detailed knowledge of the habits, cycles, and and food values of the plants, insects reptiles, marsupials, and fish found in its area, developing methods and equipment for obtaining them and, when necessary, for making them edible. The behavior of one insect, plant, or animal was a sign the condition or appearance of certain others, each in its own place in time. When one population group of natives increased beyond the number that could live within practical range, some of its members moved to the next unoccupied area, and still held kinship, social, economic, and ritual ties with the original group. By this process, all of Australia was occupied. The basic part of Aboriginal life was complete dependence on nature and on intelligent adaptation through knowledge and skill. This equilibrium between the native people and nature was hugely upset by European settlements beginning in 1788. The better lands were seized, and the food-gathering, theology, and social activities were stringently changed. The groups located near white settlements became more on an unbalanced diet furnished by whites. The inevitable result was the economic decline of the native people. The Aboriginals did, however, adjust to their new environment. For example, some Aboriginals in the northern cattle area were employed as stockmen. The Australian Federal Government is working along with natives to employ gradual self-determination and consultation in decision making. (Altman) However, continuing impoverished lifestyles of many groups of Aboriginals continues to be a problem. Education is poor and housing is inadequate(Real Borges 5 World). They received the right to vote in 1967, and are continuing to be successful in continuously demanding their rights as people (Ponnamperuma). Indigenous People of Hawaii In 1893, the United States Government along with U. S. Minister John L. Stevens, through covert operations, overthrew the Hawaiian monarch led by Queen Liliuokalani and helped to establish a Provisional Government which took full possession of all government functions and buildings of the Hawaiian islands. That same year, President Grover Cleveland submitted to Congress a full report that condemned the role of the American minister and the U. S. Marines and called for a restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy. In 1898, Congress ignored President Clevelands previous request and brought into the Union the Hawaiian Islands through the Newlands Resolution This was legally questioned as to whether the U. S. Congress had authority to admit territory into the Union because it is not specified that it had right to acquire land other than through conquest or treaty. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) realizes that the actions taken by the U. S. are illegal and thus are the basis for their legal claims for the restoration of human, civil, property, and sovereign rights of Hawaiis indigenous people. The JACL believes that the unlawful overthrow holds special significance, as it has neither been addressed nor remedied for over a century. This loss of self-rule, according to the JACL remains an important cultural and political factor today (Costanha). Additionally, the JACL believes that unresolved justice to one is harm endured by all full range or consideration of Hawaiis peoples rights and freedoms must be completely explored in order to bring about harmony within Hawaiis society,(Costanha). The JACL Many Hawaiians are bitter about the current hip Hawaiian culture, with hula girls and surfers. Many believe that they are being exploited, including one of the leaders of the native Hawaiians sovereignty movement, Haunani-Kay Trask (Nakao, 1). There are two proposed plans for a sovereign Hawaii. One is the nation within a nation model in which 4. 2 million square acres are set aside as Hawaiian homeland and residents pay taxes to elected Hawaiian representatives. The United States would still be in charge of defense and most legal matters, but Hawaii would have control over its land and resources. The other plan is that of complete sovereignty, in which Hawaii holds complete rule. The countries of Brazil and Australia and the state of Hawaii all have things in common: internal conflict, one group thriving at the bottom of a social hierarchy, and that same group fighting for their rights. These groups need and deserve to be given the land that Europeans have taken from them, and also should be treated equally. Indigenous People. Indigenous people are those that are native to an area. Throughout the world, there are many groups or tribes of people that have been taken over by the Europeans in their early conquests throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by immigrating groups of individuals, and by greedy corporate businesses trying to take their land. The people indigenous to Australia, Brazil and South America, and Hawaii are currently fighting for their rights as people: the rights to own land, to be free from prejudice, and to have their lands protected from society. Indigenous People of Brazil and South America The people indigenous to Brazil and South America are an extremely noteworthy group. The Brazilian population originally derives from four ethnic sources. From the beginning, the country has been a mixture of many races of people. Of these, are the native Indians, the colonizing Portuguese, the enslaved African blacks, and the various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia. Many of the indigenous tribes are quarreling with Brazils officials and businesses. Rainforests are depleting at a rapid rate and, as they are a home to many indigenous tribes, is causing great turmoil. Although the Constitution of 1988 claims to recognize the indians original land rights to the lands they traditionally occupy and promise that these lands will be demarcated and protected, the Government Agency Funai is charged with the demarcation of of nearly fifty percent of the lands(PeaceNet). The report claims that, in reality, most most indian lands whether demarcated or not are coveted for some form of development. This claim is substantiated by the fact that mineral concessions have been made on fifty-eight percent of all demarcated indian lands, while thirteen percent are affected by hydroelectric projects, (PeaceNet) The link between global environmental change and the rights of indigenous populations results from the close relationship between indigenous peoples cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings. Therefore, if the environment of the native Indians of Brazil continues to be changed and removed, the people born on these lands will be exterminated out of existence. Additionally, many societal views of the indigenous people is killing them. The Amnesty International report, as commented upon by PeaceNet cites one occasion in which a thirty-five year old Macuxi Indian by the name of Damiao Mendes was found lying face down on a muddy riverbank, shot in the neck. Nearby lay his nineteen year-old nephew, murdered by the same means. Opposition from local ranchers stalled the demarcation of the land belonging to the Macuxi Indians. The Macuxi are a group whose ancestral lands lie on the plains of Roraima. The Indians claim to the land has resulted in the attacks, and thusfar have forced many to abandon the ancestral grasslands. The report continues, Damaio Mendes and Mario Davis were killed for land. The investigation into the killing was cursory. No one has been brought to justice. Dozens of Indians in Brazil have been murdered in similar circumstances. One group, the leaders of the Mexica Movement, accuse Europeans of invading their lands in 1492 and and 1519, and breaking up our lands that they call Mexico(1821), Central America(1823), and the U. S. Southwest(Texas in 1836 and the rest in 1848). (Mexica, 2) They also point out that In the last 500 years, in addition to the theft of our lands, we have seen the destruction of of our Anahuac cities, the execution of our leaders, the genocide if 23 million of our people (95% of our population killed), the theft of our wealth, the theft of out labor, and most importantly, the theft of our true Anahuac identity, history, heritage, and theology. They point out many of the successes of the Anahuac civilization, including developed sciences, agriculture, philosophies, all of the civilized arts, and three cities larger than Europes largest city. Powerful phrases are used, such as racial rape and cultural castration of our population, and claim that the the influx of Europeans caused the Anahuac to become a society riddled with ignorance, poor education, low-self-esteem, poverty, crime, gangs, dropouts, lack of indigenous representation, and and an inferiority complex of the worst kind: the self-hate of an entire people. The Mexica Movement believes that the best way to solve this problem that they, as a society, are faced with, is to provide knowledge of its history and true heritage. They believe that Knowledge, vision, courage, and perseverance will change our people into an authentically proud people, and a revived creative world force We will hold our heads and hearts proudly. We will happily know who we are. Indigenous People of Australia The Aborigines are an indigenous group from Australia. They were the first human inhabitants of this land. The word Aborigine is actually from Latin language, meaning from the beginning. The Europeans gave this name to native Australians, but this is not what they call themselves. They prefer to be called Koori (Ponnamperuma). They adapted to their environment well: the people in the colder southeast tended to be short and thick-set which was useful for conserving body heat, and the people in the hot desert were taller and lean. The Aboriginals lived solely by hunting and food gathering. Each group accumulated detailed knowledge of the habits, cycles, and and food values of the plants, insects reptiles, marsupials, and fish found in its area, developing methods and equipment for obtaining them and, when necessary, for making them edible. The behavior of one insect, plant, or animal was a sign the condition or appearance of certain others, each in its own place in time. When one population group of natives increased beyond the number that could live within practical range, some of its members moved to the next unoccupied area, and still held kinship, social, economic, and ritual ties with the original group. By this process, all of Australia was occupied. The basic part of Aboriginal life was complete dependence on nature and on intelligent adaptation through knowledge and skill. This equilibrium between the native people and nature was hugely upset by European settlements beginning in 1788. The better lands were seized, and the food-gathering, theology, and social activities were stringently changed. The groups located near white settlements became more on an unbalanced diet furnished by whites. The inevitable result was the economic decline of the native people. The Aboriginals did, however, adjust to their new environment. For example, some Aboriginals in the northern cattle area were employed as stockmen. The Australian Federal Government is working along with natives to employ gradual self-determination and consultation in decision making. (Altman) However, continuing impoverished lifestyles of many groups of Aboriginals continues to be a problem. Education is poor and housing is inadequate(Real Borges 5 World). They received the right to vote in 1967, and are continuing to be successful in continuously demanding their rights as people (Ponnamperuma). Indigenous People of Hawaii. In 1893, the United States Government along with U. S. Minister John L. Stevens, through covert operations, overthrew the Hawaiian monarch led by Queen Liliuokalani and helped to establish a Provisional Government which took full possession of all government functions and buildings of the Hawaiian islands. That same year, President Grover Cleveland submitted to Congress a full report that condemned the role of the American minister and the U. S. Marines and called for a restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy. In 1898, Congress ignored President Clevelands previous request and brought into the Union the Hawaiian Islands through the Newlands Resolution This was legally questioned as to whether the U. S. Congress had authority to admit territory into the Union because it is not specified that it had right to acquire land other than through conquest or treaty. The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) realizes that the actions taken by the U. S. are illegal and thus are the basis for their legal claims for the restoration of human, civil, property, and sovereign rights of Hawaiis indigenous people. The JACL believes that the unlawful overthrow holds special significance, as it has neither been addressed nor remedied for over a century. This loss of self-rule, according to the JACL remains an important cultural and political factor today (Costanha). Additionally, the JACL believes that unresolved justice to one is harm endured by all full range or consideration of Hawaiis peoples rights and freedoms must be completely explored in order to bring about harmony within Hawaiis society,(Costanha). The JACL Many Hawaiians are bitter about the current hip Hawaiian culture, with hula girls and surfers. Many believe that they are being exploited, including one of the leaders of the native Hawaiians sovereignty movement, Haunani-Kay Trask (Nakao, 1). There are two proposed plans for a sovereign Hawaii. One is the nation within a nation model in which 4. 2 million square acres are set aside as Hawaiian homeland and residents pay taxes to elected Hawaiian representatives. The United States would still be in charge of defense and most legal matters, but Hawaii would have control over its land and resources. The other plan is that of complete sovereignty, in which Hawaii holds complete rule. The countries of Brazil and Australia and the state of Hawaii all have things in common: internal conflict, one group thriving at the bottom of a social hierarchy, and that same group fighting for their rights. These groups need and deserve to be given the land that Europeans have taken from them, and also should be treated equally.

Credit Card Fraud Detection through Data Mining

Credit Card Fraud Detection through Data Mining Abstract With the increasing fraudsters day to day, the fallacious transaction is rapidly growing thus making the frauds in this scenario a matter of high importance. Huge database patterns are identified by various data mining models assisting to strengthen and detect the credit card fraud. This research primarily focusses on Credit Card Fraud Detection analyzing two different methods used to detect fraudulent systems and implement the new technologies to the system to minimize frauds in credit card transactions Keywords- Data Mining, Methods, Credit Card, Fraud Detection, Hybrid Technology, Neural Network, Support Vector System Data Mining is filled with application growth opportunities and research which are reliable and usable from the data. Rapid development of e-commerce, usage of credit card has become well known mode for online and regular transactions, increasing the credit card fraud simultaneously. Fraud detection is a complicated problem as unwanted transactions are hidden in the authoriosed transaction. Due to security reasons and also to gain trust of users credit card fraud detection has now become important to companies. Neural Networks [1], Bayesian Network [2], Hidden NaÃÆ' ¯ve Bayes Network [12], Dempster Shafer [10] are few methods to be justified in detecting the credit card fraudulent system. With the new technologies, it has now become easy for the companies and banks to detect the fraudulent system. With the growing credit card fraud problem in the industry this literature review will help us to understand and detect the techniques involved in detecting the fraudulent system. We will be describing two different approaches Neural Network and Support vector machine approach thus learning a new method to minimize the fraudulent system. This paper helps us to analyze data mining methods with respect to credit card fraud system. A. Neural Network Approach Neural network fraud detection method is primarily based on working of a human brain. Just as the human brain is capable of learning things from the previous experiences and uses the knowledge to decide things occurring in day to day problems the same strategy is used while detecting a credit card fraud with Neural Network system. Neural Network can reflect a small part of complexity and regulation Banks use this kind of network method to detect the credit card fraud. The moment a transaction takes place there are a set of attributes attached to it characterizing the account holder, the amount and the merchant. Considering an example, for the Mellow Bank Fraud Detection Feasibility Study a particular archived amount of data was used for model development as the authorized data wasnt easily available due to security reasons. P-RCE [3] neural network technique is used. P-RCE is used for pattern recognition as it helps to describe what exactly the human brain is thinking about. P-RCE has a single cell layer which outputs a numeric response called as Fraud score. The lower the threshold the more no. of credit card fraud is detected. Higher the credit card detection threshold less no. of fraud is detected. With 2000000 transactions of Mellon Banks data from Oct-Nov 1991, nearly measuring 50 accounts per day 40% of the fraudulent transaction was observed but prior to use of P-RCE method in Mellon Banks feasibility study the result came out to be 1 fraudulent transaction per week on reviewing 750 account per day. The improvement in the fraud detection performance was undeniably considerable. The p attern recognition method can actually help the banks to reduce 20-40% (in total) credit card fraud losses. B. Support Virtual Machine Approach An online transaction has four entities: credit card holder, credit card, the seller and the buyer. There is an independent history of transactions with each set of entities in the data set. Each entity keeps almost a consistent behavior pattern in authorized transactions. The risk of a transaction can be estimated by calculating the inconsistency of a transaction from the history of authorized transactions. Let us define Xe(t) {a1, a2, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, an) as the transactional set in the entitys history is equivalent to f(t) beingF(t) {seller, buyer, holder, card) set of entities. We calculate the score of transactions, by defining l = (l1 , l19) [3] with c as value of a feature, as SC(l,e,t) = count(c,Xe(t)) The idea to calculate how near a transaction is related to past authorized transactions therefore we consider only those transactions that are proved legitimate from Xe(t). To train and test a classifier (weight and score) we have a vector in conjunction with the classification: SVM (Support Vector Machines). They are essentially supervised learning models used for analyzing data and recognition of patterns. Using the traditional methods, raw data was classified with SVM to check the impact of general weight in the outcomes and reduce SVM complexity as well. SVM classifier was used in classifying the transactions as fraud or authorized resulting in 40-50% in most months with false alarm rate 10-12%. The online credit card fraud system can be detected and improvised with the Big Data Technologies framework. The main aim is to achieve the goal of fusing various detection methods to enhance the accuracy. A workflow was proposed [13] containing common designs of fraudulent system thus making it easier to integrate identification of fraud system. In recent years, big data platforms were released to process and operate data including MapReduce and Apache Hadoop frameworks (open source for MapReduce). Two components are primarily considered: spouts and bolts. The source of streams is referred to as spout which reads and sends tuples from external source into topology. The data processing is done by Bolt. With the reference, the paper proposes a hybrid structure with Big data efficient in solving challenges related to performance and integration. The basic workflow is defined [13] in the figure. QF- Quick filter, DSA Demper Shafer Adder (combining different fraud scores and generating a merged result), EF- Explicit filter. This workflow is designed by combining different algorithms together for a higher accuracy like two DSAs are combined so that we can aggregate their fraud score to get better accuracy; 2) Another aspect can be considered by combining supervised unsupervised fraud approaches to examine a good cover of types of fraud; 3) The filters used: QF detects only the behavior of card holder whereas EF detects the historical data in the whole model. So, to achieve faster filter we can combine QF and EF as well as to get better efficiency the combination is good to go. In this paper, we have reviewed two data mining detection methods of credit card fraud. The research papers which arent considered here might have comprehensive methods to research and implementations of new detection techniques. This research paper describes: The Neural Network can be implemented in banks to reduce the credit card fraudulent system with it P-RCE algorithm. 2) Support Vector machine can detect the frauds in ecommerce system real time but isnt much reliable for complex frauds. 3) Hybrid technology framework, the workflow is essential to detect frauds in offline system as the method but can improve accuracy, performance and efficiency. To develop a credit card fraud system, the neural network method is best suited according to my understanding as it is efficient, accurate and cost effective thus implemented in Mellon Bank. Neural Network method has some failures as well but gradually with new technology it can overcome. But to develop a strong fraud detection system using credit card we need to combine few more complex detecting methods. References [1] S. Ghosh and D. L. Reilly, Credit card fraud detection with a neural network, in System Sciences, 1994. Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Hawaii International Conference on, vol. 3, Jan 1994, pp. 621-630. [2] G. F. Cooper and E. Herskovits. A Bayesian Method for the Induction of Probabilistic Networks from Data. Machine Learning, 9(4):309-347, 1992. Santiago, Gabriel Preti, Adriano Pereira, and Roberto Hirata Jr. A modeling approach for credit card fraud detection in electronic payment services. In Proceedings of the 30th Annual ACM Symposium on Applied Computing, pp. 2328-2331. ACM, 2015. Online Credit Card Fraud Detection: A Hybrid Framework with Big Data Technologies You Daià ¢Ã‹â€ -, Jin Yanà ¢Ã‹â€ -, Xiaoxin Tangà ¢Ã‹â€ -, Han Zhaoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   and Minyi Guoà ¢Ã‹â€ - à ¢Ã‹â€ -Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  School of Computer Science Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China Philip K. Chan, Wei Fan, Andreas 1. Prodromidir, and Salvotore 1. Stalfo, Distributed Data Mining in Credit Card Fraud Detection 2016 IEEE TrustCom/BigDataSE/ISPA H. Michael Chung Fredric C. Gey Data Mining, Knowledge Discovery, and Information Retrieval, Proceedings of the 34th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 2001 Agrawal, Ayushi, Shiv Kumar, and Amit Kumar Mishra. Implementation of Novel Approach for Credit Card Fraud Detection. In Computing for Sustainable Global Development (INDIACom), 2015 2nd International Conference on, pp. 1-4. IEEE, 2015. [2008] Abhinav Srivastava, Amlan Kundu, Shamik Sural and Arun K. Majumdar, CreditCard Fraud Detection Using Hidden Markov Model IEEE, Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, Vol. 5, No 1., January-March D. L. Reilly and L. N. Cooper, An overview ofneural networks: early models to real worldsystems, in An Introduction to Neural and Electronic Networks, ed. S. F. Zometzer, J. L. Davis and C. Lau, 227-248, Academic Press, (1990). S. Panigrahi, A. Kundu, S. Sural, and A. Majumdar, Credit card fraud detection: A fusion approach using dempstershafer theory and Bayesian learning, Information Fusion, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 354 363, 2009. Z. D. Zhao and M. s. Shang, User-based collaborative-filtering recommendation algorithms on hadoop, in Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, 2010. WKDD 10. Third International Conference on, Jan 2010,pp. 478-481. [12] Jiang, Liangxiao, Harry Zhang, and Zhihua Cai. A novel Bayes model: Hidden naive Bayes. IEEE Transactions on knowledge and data engineering 21, no. 10 (2009): 1361-1371. [13] Dai, You, Jin Yan, Xiaoxin Tang, Han Zhao, and Minyi Guo. Online Credit Card Fraud Detection: A Hybrid Framework with Big Data Technologies. In Trustcom/BigDataSE/Ià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ SPA, 2016 IEEE, pp. 1644-1651.IEEE, 2016.

Artistic Expression in 18th and 19th Century America :: American America History

Artistic Expression in 18th and 19th Century America The first settlers in the New World faced unpredictable hardships. The men of the Virginia colony had enough trouble learning to live off the land, let alone having to defend themselves from native attacks. Famine proved to be a hard obstacle to conquer for all of the new colonies. New England, while having a more suitable climate for the prevention of diseases, also had its conflicts with local tribes. The Puritan ideals of New England were very strict especially in regard to private indulgences, including art. The only type of art that was "acceptable", were portraits, almost exclusively of upper class citizens and clergy. Through the years leading up to the revolution, however, as the population became diversified, new ideas started to influence popular thought. There were many different cultures coexisting as well as different social classes. However, as was the standard in Europe, only the upper class people were part of the "art world". Look at paintings from the per revolutionary era, including The Mason Children: David, Joanna, Abigail, (unknown artist), Hanna Minot Moody (Joseph Badger), New England Merchant (Charles W. Peale), Portrait of Elizabeth, The Artist's Daughter (John Singleton Copley), we notice many similarities among them. As stated previously, they are all portraits. All of the subjects are portrayed in very fine clothes and are obviously posing for the painting. Most of these works have little or nothing at all in the background. One gets a very "cold and sterile" feeling when looking at these, and they are most certainly intended not for artistic expression but simply to record the image. "As late as 1800, owing to the limited economy of the Colonies as well as the Puritan’s prejudice against idolatry and their regard for art as a luxury, portraiture was the only accepted form of expression in painting." (Bazin 341). In the period following the American Revolution up to the turn of the eighteenth century, we start to see some subtle yet significant changes in the popular artwork. We can see a much bolder use of color and background, as in C.W. Peale’s Benjamin and Eleanor Ridgely Laming (1788) and Mather Brown’s Sir Richard Arkwright (1790). Emotion is shown of the faces of the subjects and Ralph Earl showed the Striker Sisters (1787) with their arms around each other and pleasant, happy smiles on their faces. Mr. Peale’s work shows the physical attraction between Benjamin and Eleanor.

Anointed King :: essays research papers

Within Shakespeare’s play Richard II there are many questionable and untrusting characters. Truth and duty are only illusions within the play. Lust for power and control override the order of England and its ordained king. It’s believed that it is by the will of God that Richard is king. No mortal man can come between what God has set before them as rule. The final decision is God’s and the only way that God’s choice can be changed is by God himself, and no one else. God takes the Garden of Eden from Adam, and like Adam, England is taken from Richard. It is questionable if Bolingbroke acts against God’s will or through God’s will. Richard is king, and though a sad choice, he has been ordained by God as king and ruler of England. It is not for his followers to decide if he is to be replaced by someone that they feel would be a better caretaker of the “garden';. In Richard II , by overtaking the crown and replacing R ichard with Bolingbroke, society is going against its own belief that Richard is ordained by God. From an Englishman’s point of view it could be argued that God is somewhat responsible for the state that England is in, because they believe Richard was chosen by God. Within Richard II , God is believed to be forsaken so that England can become a great kingdom again, and this is done in hope that Richard’s wrongs can be made right by Bolingbroke. Richard’s opposition - York, Bolingbroke, and Northumberland - believe that what they are doing is done to regenerate the badly tended “garden';. They want to replant it with Bolingbroke as king, and this they believe will restore England to order. By judging and replacing Richard they are going against what their society believes is God’s will. This is the worst mistake of all, because as the saying goes “two wrongs don’t make a right';. They are playing against a power fa r greater than anything they could imagine Richard being able to do. Their worries should not be of what Richard will do to them if they do not succeed, but what God will do to them at any given time. Northumberland tells of how the kingship will be restored and the garden revived. "If then we shall shake off our slavish yoke,/ Imp out our drooping country’s broken wing,/ Redeem from broking pawn the blemished crown,/ Wipe off the dust that hides our scepter’s gilt,/ And make high majesty look like itself," (Richard II II.

E Commerce

E-commerce advantages and disadvantages E-commerce provides many new ways for businesses and consumers to communicate and conduct business. There are a number of advantages and disadvantages of conducting business in this manner. E-commerce advantages Some advantages that can be achieved from e-commerce include: †¢Being able to conduct business 24 x 7 x 365 . E-commerce systems can operate all day every day. Your physical storefront does not need to be open in order for customers and suppliers to be doing business with you electronically. Access the global marketplace . The Internet spans the world, and it is possible to do business with any business or person who is connected to the Internet. Simple local businesses such as specialist record stores are able to market and sell their offerings internationally using e-commerce. This global opportunity is assisted by the fact that, unlike traditional communications methods, users are not charged according to the distance over which they are communicating. Speed. Electronic communications allow messages to traverse the world almost instantaneously. There is no need to wait weeks for a catalogue to arrive by post: that communications delay is not a part of the Internet / e-commerce world. †¢Marketspace. The market in which web-based businesses operate is the global market. It may not be evident to them, but many businesses are already facing international competition from web-enabled businesses. †¢Opportunity to reduce costs. The Internet makes it very easy to ‘shop around' for products and services that may be cheaper or more effective than we might otherwise settle for. It is sometimes possible to, through some online research, identify original manufacturers for some goods – thereby bypassing wholesalers and achieving a cheaper price. †¢Computer platform-independent . ‘Many, if not most, computers have the ability to communicate via the Internet independent of operating systems and hardware. Customers are not limited by existing hardware systems' (Gascoyne & Ozcubukcu, 1997:87). †¢Efficient applications development environment – ‘In many respects, applications can be more efficiently developed and distributed because the can be built without regard to the customer's or the business partner's technology platform. Application updates do not have to be manually installed on computers. Rather, Internet-related technologies provide this capability inherently through automatic deployment of software updates' (Gascoyne & Ozcubukcu, 1997:87). Allowing customer self service and ‘customer outsourcing'. People can interact with businesses at any hour of the day that it is convenient to them, and because these interactions are initiated by customers, the customers also provide a lot of the data for the transaction that may otherwise need to be entered by business staff. This means that some of the work and costs are effectively shifted to customers; this is r eferred to as ‘customer outsourcing'. †¢Stepping beyond borders to a global view. Using aspects of e-commerce technology can mean your business can source and use products and services provided by other businesses in other countries. This seems obvious enough to say, but people do not always consider the implications of e-commerce. For example, in many ways it can be easier and cheaper to host and operate some e-commerce activities outside Australia. Further, because many e-commerce transactions involve credit cards, many businesses in Australia need to make arrangements for accepting online payments. However a number of major Australian banks have tended to be unhelpful laggards on this front, charging a lot of money and making it difficult to establish these arrangements – particularly for smaller businesses and/or businesses that don't fit into a traditional-economy understanding of business. In some cases, therefore, it can be easier and cheaper to set up arrangements which bypass this aspect of the Australian banking system. Admittedly, this can create some grey areas for legal and taxation purposes, but these can be dealt with. And yes these circumstances do have implications for Australia's national competitiveness and the competitiveness of our industries and businesses. As a further thought, many businesses find it easier to buy and sell in U. S. dollars: it is effectively the major currency of the Internet. In this context, global online customers can find the concept of peculiar and unfamiliar currencies disconcerting. Some businesses find they can achieve higher prices online and in US dollars than they would achieve selling locally or nationally. Given that banks often charge fees for converting currencies, this is another reason to investigate all of your (national and international) options for accepting and making online payments. In brief, it is useful to take a global view with regard the potential and organisation of your e-commerce activities, especially if you are targeting global customers. †¢A new marketing channel. The Internet provides an important new channel to sell to consumers. Peterson et al. 1999) suggest that, as a marketing channel, the Internet has the following characteristics: †¢the ability to inexpensively store vast amounts of information at different virtual locations †¢the availability of powerful and inexpensive means of searching, organising, and disseminating such information †¢interactivity and the ability to provide information on demand †¢the ability to provide perceptual experiences that are far superior to a printed catalogue, although not as rich as personal inspect ion †¢the capability to serve as a transaction medium the ability to serve as a physical distribution medium for certain goods (e. g. , software) †¢relatively low entry and establishment costs for sellers †¢no other existing marketing channel possesses all of these characteristics. Some of these advantages and their surrounding issues are discussed below in further detail. E-commerce disadvantages and constraints Some disadvantages and constraints of e-commerce include the following. †¢Time for delivery of physical products . It is possible to visit a local music store and walk out with a compact disc, or a bookstore and leave with a book. E-commerce is often used to buy goods that are not available locally from businesses all over the world, meaning that physical goods need to be delivered, which takes time and costs money. In some cases there are ways around this, for example, with electronic files of the music or books being accessed across the Internet, but then these are not physical goods. †¢Physical product, supplier & delivery uncertainty . When you walk out of a shop with an item, it's yours. You have it; you know what it is, where it is and how it looks. In some respects e-commerce purchases are made on trust. This is because, firstly, not having had physical access to the product, a purchase is made on an expectation of what that product is and its condition. Secondly, because supplying businesses can be conducted across the world, it can be uncertain whether or not they are legitimate businesses and are not just going to take your money. It's pretty hard to knock on their door to complain or seek legal recourse! Thirdly, even if the item is sent, it is easy to start wondering whether or not it will ever arrive. †¢Perishable goods . Forget about ordering a single gelato ice cream from a shop in Rome! Though specialised or refrigerated transport can be used, goods bought and sold via the Internet tend to be durable and non-perishable: they need to survive the trip from the supplier to the purchasing business or consumer. This shifts the bias for perishable and/or non-durable goods back towards traditional supply chain arrangements, or towards relatively more local e-commerce-based purchases, sales and distribution. In contrast, durable goods can be traded from almost anyone to almost anyone else, sparking competition for lower prices. In some cases this leads to disintermediation in which intermediary people and businesses are bypassed by consumers and by other businesses that are seeking to purchase more directly from manufacturers. †¢Limited and selected sensory information. The Internet is an effective conduit for visual and auditory information: seeing pictures, hearing sounds and reading text. However it does not allow full scope for our senses: we can see pictures of the flowers, but not smell their fragrance; we can see pictures of a hammer, but not feel its weight or balance. Further, when we pick up and inspect something, we choose what we look at and how we look at it. This is not the case on the Internet. If we were looking at buying a car on the Internet, we would see the pictures the seller had chosen for us to see but not the things we might look for if we were able to see it in person. And, taking into account our other senses, we can't test the car to hear the sound of the engine as it changes gears or sense the smell and feel of the leather seats. There are many ways in which the Internet does not convey the richness of experiences of the world. This lack of sensory information means that people are often much more comfortable buying via the Internet generic goods – things that they have seen or experienced before and about which there is little ambiguity, rather than unique or complex things. †¢Returning goods. Returning goods online can be an area of difficulty. The uncertainties surrounding the initial payment and delivery of goods can be exacerbated in this process. Will the goods get back to their source? Who pays for the return postage? Will the refund be paid? Will I be left with nothing? How long will it take? Contrast this with the offline experience of returning goods to a shop. †¢Privacy, security, payment, identity, contract. Many issues arise – privacy of information, security of that information and payment details, whether or not payment details (eg credit card details) will be misused, identity theft, contract, and, whether we have one or not, what laws and legal jurisdiction apply. †¢Defined services & the unexpected . E-commerce is an effective means for managing the transaction of known and established services, that is, things that are everyday. It is not suitable for dealing with the new or unexpected. For example, a transport company used to dealing with simple packages being asked if it can transport a hippopotamus, or a customer asking for a book order to be wrapped in blue and white polka dot paper with a bow. Such requests need human intervention to investigate and resolve. †¢Personal service . Although some human interaction can be facilitated via the web, e-commerce can not provide the richness of interaction provided by personal service. For most businesses, e-commerce methods provide the equivalent of an information-rich counter attendant rather than a salesperson. This also means that feedback about how people react to product and service offerings also tends to be more granular or perhaps lost using e-commerce approaches. If your only feedback is that people are (or are not) buying your products or services online, this is inadequate for evaluating how to change or improve your e-commerce strategies and/or product and service offerings. Successful business use of e-commerce typically involves strategies for gaining and applying customer feedback. This helps businesses to understand, anticipate and meet changing online customer needs and preferences, which is critical because of the comparatively rapid rate of ongoing Internet-based change. †¢Size and number of transactions. E-commerce is most often conducted using credit card facilities for payments, and as a result very small and very large transactions tend not to be conducted online. The size of transactions is also impacted by the economics of transporting physical goods. For example, any benefits or conveniences of buying a box of pens online from a US-based business tend to be eclipsed by the cost of having to pay for them to be delivered to you in Australia. The delivery costs also mean that buying individual items from a range of different overseas businesses is significantly more expensive than buying all of the goods from one overseas business because the goods can be packaged and shipped together. E Commerce Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or ecommerce, is a type of industry where the buying and selling of products or services is conducted over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDILinventory management systems, and automated data collection systems.Modern electronic commerce typically uses he World Wide Web at least at one point in the transaction's life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail, mobile devices, social media, and telephones as well. Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of business transactions. This is an effective and efficient way of communicating within an organization and one of the most effective and useful ways of conducting business. E-commerce can be divided into:E-tailing or â€Å"virtual storefronts† on websites with online catalogs, sometimes gathered into a â€Å"virtual mall† Buying or Selling on various websites and/or online marketplaces The gathering and use of demographic data through Web contacts and social media Electronic Data Interchange (ED'), the business-to-business exchange of data E-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospective and established customers (for example, with newsletters) Business-to-business buying and selling The security of business transactions Types of e-commerce[edit] The major different types of e-commerce are:Business-to-Business (82B): 82B e-commerce is simply defined as e-commerce between companies. This is the type of e-commerce that deals with relationships between and among businesses. About 80% of e-commerce is of this type, and most experts predict that 82B e- commerce will continue to grow faster than the B2C segment. The 82B market has two primary components: e-frastructure and e-markets. Business-to-consumer (B2C): Business-to-consumer e-commerce, or commerce between companies and consumers, involves customers gathering information; purchasing physical goods i. . , tangibles such as books or consumer products) or information goods (or goods of electronic material or digitized content, such as software, or e-books); and, for information goods, receiving products over an electronic network. It is the second largest and the earliest form of e-commerce. Business-to-Government (826): Business-to-government e-commerce or B2G is generally defined as commerce between companies and the public sector. It refers to the use of the Internet for public procurement, licensing procedures, and other government-related operations.This kind of e-commerce has two features: first, the public sector assumes a pilot/ leading role in establishing e-co mmerce; and second, it is assumed that the public sector nas the greatest need tor making its procurement system more ettective. Web- based purchasing policies increase the transparency of the procurement process (and reduces the risk of irregularities). To date, however, the size of the B2G e- commerce market as a component of total e-commerce is insignificant, as government e-procurement systems remain undeveloped. Consumer-to-consumer (C2C):Consumer-to-consumer e-commerce or C2C is simply commerce between private individuals or consumers. This type of e-commerce is characterized by the growth of electronic marketplaces and online auctions, particularly in vertical industries where firms/businesses can bid for what they want from among multiple suppliers. It perhaps has the greatest potential for developing new markets. Mobile Commerce (m-commerce): M-commerce (mobile commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services through wireless technology-i. e. , handheld devices suc h as cellular telephones and personal digital assistants (PDAs).Japan is seen as a global leader in m-commerce. As content delivery over wireless devices becomes faster, more secure, and scalable, some believe that m-commerce will surpass wireline e-commerce as the method of choice for digital commerce transactions. This may well be true for the Asia-Pacific where there are more mobile phone users than there are Internet users. Governmental regulation[edit] In the United States, some electronic commerce activities are regulated by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). These activities include the use of commercial e- mails, online advertising and consumer privacy.The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail. The Federal Trade Commission Act regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive. [24] Using its authority under Section 5 of the FTC Act, which prohibits u nfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers' personal information. [25] As result, any corporate privacy policy related to e- ommerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the FTC.The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, which came into law in 2008, amends the Controlled Substances Act to address online pharmacies. [26] Internationally there is the International Consumer Protection and Enforcement Network (ICPEN), which was formed in 1991 from an informal network of government customer fair trade organisations. The purpose was stated as being to find ways of co-operating on tackling consumer problems connected with cross-border transactions in both goods and services, and to help ensure exchanges of nformation among the participants for mutual benefit and understanding.From this came Econsumer. gov, an ICPEN initiative since April 2001. It is a portal to report complaints about online and related transactions with foreign companies. There is also Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) was established in 1989 with the vision of achieving stability, security and prosperity for the region through free and open trade and investment. APEC has an Electronic Commerce Stearing Group as well as working on common privacy regulations throughout the APEC region. In Australia,Trade is covered under Australian Treasury Guidelines tor electronic commerce, [27] and the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission[28] regulates and offers advice on how to deal with businesses online,[29] and offers specific advice on what happens if things go wrong. [30] Also Australian government e-commerce website[31] provides information on e-commerce in Australia. In the United Kingdom, The FSA (Financial Services Authority)[32] is the competent authority for most aspects of the Payment Services Directive (PSD).The UK implemente d the PSD through the Payment Services Regulations 2009 (PSRs), which came into effect on 1 November 2009. The PSR affects firms providing payment services and their customers. These firms include banks, non-bank credit card issuers and non-bank merchant acquirers, e-money issuers, etc. The PSRs created a new class of regulated firms known as payment institutions (Pls), who are subject to prudential requirements. Article 87 of the PSD requires the European Commission to report on the implementation and impact of the PSD by 1 November 2012. 33] Forms[edit] Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from ordering â€Å"digital† ontent for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to â€Å"meta† services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce. On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integri ty and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce.Aside from traditional e-commerce, m-Commerce as well as the nascent t- Commerce[34] channels are often seen as the current 2013 poster children of electronic I-Commerce. Global trends[edit] In 2010, the United Kingdom had the biggest e-commerce market in the world when measured by the amount spent per capita. [35] The Czech Republic is the European country where ecommerce delivers the biggest contribution to the enterprises' total revenue. Almost a quarter (24%) of the countrys total turnover is generated via the online channel. 36] Among emerging economies, China's e-commerce presence continues[when? ] to expand. With 384 million internet users, China's online shopping sales rose to $36. 6 billion in 2009 and one of the reasons behind the huge growth has been the improved trust level for shoppers. The Chinese retailers have been able to help consumers feel more comfortable shopping online. [37] China's cross- border e-commerce is also growing rapidly. E-commerce transactions between China and other countries increased 32% to 2. 3 trillion yuan ($375. 8 billion) in 2012 and accounted for 9. % of China's total international trade [38] Other BRIC countries are witnessing the accelerated growth of ecommerce as well. In Russia, the total ecommerce market is projected to total somewhere between 690 billion rubles ($23 billion) and 900 billion rubles ($30 billion) in 201 5, at 2010 values. This will equal 5% of total retail volume in Russia. Longer-term, the market size of Russian e-commerce could reach $50 billion by 2020. Brazil's ecommerce is growing quickly with retail ecommerce sales expected to grow at a healthy double-digit pace through 2014.By 2016, eMarketer expects retail ecommerce sales in Brazil to reach $17. 3 billion. [39] India's ecommerce growth, on the other hand, has been slower although the country's potential remains solid considering its surging economy, the rapid growth of internet penetration, English language proficiency and a vast market of 1. billion consumers (although perhaps only 50 million access the internet throug n PCs and some estimate the most active group of e-commerce customers numbers only 2-3 million). E-commerce traffic grew about 50% from 2011 to 2012, from 26. 1 million to 37. million, according to a report released by Com Score. Still much of the estimated 14 billion dollars in 2012 ecommerce was generated from travel sites. ecommerce is also expanding across the Middle East. Having recorded the world's fastest growth in internet usage between 2000 and 2009, the region is now[when? ] home to more than 0 million internet users. Retail, travel and gaming are the region's top ecommerce segments, in spite of difficulties such as the lack of region-wide legal frameworks and logistical problems in cross-border transportation[citation needed].E-commerce has become an important tool for small and large businesses worldwide, not only to s ell to customers, but also to engage them. [40][41] In 2012, ecommerce sales topped $1 trillion for the first time in history. [42] Impact on markets and retailers[edit] Economists have theorized that e-commerce ought to lead to intensified rice competition, as it increases consumers' ability to gather information about products and prices.Research by four economists at the University of Chicago has found that the growth of online shopping has also affected industry structure in two areas that have seen significant growth in e-commerce, bookshopsand travel agencies. Generally, larger firms are able to use economies of scale and offer lower prices. The lone exception to this pattern has been the very smallest category of bookseller, shops with between one and four employees, which appear to have withstood the trend. [43] E Commerce Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or ecommerce, is a type of industry where the buying and selling of products or services is conducted over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDILinventory management systems, and automated data collection systems.Modern electronic commerce typically uses he World Wide Web at least at one point in the transaction's life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail, mobile devices, social media, and telephones as well. Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of business transactions. This is an effective and efficient way of communicating within an organization and one of the most effective and useful ways of conducting business. E-commerce can be divided into:E-tailing or â€Å"virtual storefronts† on websites with online catalogs, sometimes gathered into a â€Å"virtual mall† Buying or Selling on various websites and/or online marketplaces The gathering and use of demographic data through Web contacts and social media Electronic Data Interchange (ED'), the business-to-business exchange of data E-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospective and established customers (for example, with newsletters) Business-to-business buying and selling The security of business transactions Types of e-commerce[edit] The major different types of e-commerce are:Business-to-Business (82B): 82B e-commerce is simply defined as e-commerce between companies. This is the type of e-commerce that deals with relationships between and among businesses. About 80% of e-commerce is of this type, and most experts predict that 82B e- commerce will continue to grow faster than the B2C segment. The 82B market has two primary components: e-frastructure and e-markets. Business-to-consumer (B2C): Business-to-consumer e-commerce, or commerce between companies and consumers, involves customers gathering information; purchasing physical goods i. . , tangibles such as books or consumer products) or information goods (or goods of electronic material or digitized content, such as software, or e-books); and, for information goods, receiving products over an electronic network. It is the second largest and the earliest form of e-commerce. Business-to-Government (826): Business-to-government e-commerce or B2G is generally defined as commerce between companies and the public sector. It refers to the use of the Internet for public procurement, licensing procedures, and other government-related operations.This kind of e-commerce has two features: first, the public sector assumes a pilot/ leading role in establishing e-co mmerce; and second, it is assumed that the public sector nas the greatest need tor making its procurement system more ettective. Web- based purchasing policies increase the transparency of the procurement process (and reduces the risk of irregularities). To date, however, the size of the B2G e- commerce market as a component of total e-commerce is insignificant, as government e-procurement systems remain undeveloped. Consumer-to-consumer (C2C):Consumer-to-consumer e-commerce or C2C is simply commerce between private individuals or consumers. This type of e-commerce is characterized by the growth of electronic marketplaces and online auctions, particularly in vertical industries where firms/businesses can bid for what they want from among multiple suppliers. It perhaps has the greatest potential for developing new markets. Mobile Commerce (m-commerce): M-commerce (mobile commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services through wireless technology-i. e. , handheld devices suc h as cellular telephones and personal digital assistants (PDAs).Japan is seen as a global leader in m-commerce. As content delivery over wireless devices becomes faster, more secure, and scalable, some believe that m-commerce will surpass wireline e-commerce as the method of choice for digital commerce transactions. This may well be true for the Asia-Pacific where there are more mobile phone users than there are Internet users. Governmental regulation[edit] In the United States, some electronic commerce activities are regulated by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). These activities include the use of commercial e- mails, online advertising and consumer privacy.The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail. The Federal Trade Commission Act regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive. [24] Using its authority under Section 5 of the FTC Act, which prohibits u nfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers' personal information. [25] As result, any corporate privacy policy related to e- ommerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the FTC.The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, which came into law in 2008, amends the Controlled Substances Act to address online pharmacies. [26] Internationally there is the International Consumer Protection and Enforcement Network (ICPEN), which was formed in 1991 from an informal network of government customer fair trade organisations. The purpose was stated as being to find ways of co-operating on tackling consumer problems connected with cross-border transactions in both goods and services, and to help ensure exchanges of nformation among the participants for mutual benefit and understanding.From this came Econsumer. gov, an ICPEN initiative since April 2001. It is a portal to report complaints about online and related transactions with foreign companies. There is also Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) was established in 1989 with the vision of achieving stability, security and prosperity for the region through free and open trade and investment. APEC has an Electronic Commerce Stearing Group as well as working on common privacy regulations throughout the APEC region. In Australia,Trade is covered under Australian Treasury Guidelines tor electronic commerce, [27] and the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission[28] regulates and offers advice on how to deal with businesses online,[29] and offers specific advice on what happens if things go wrong. [30] Also Australian government e-commerce website[31] provides information on e-commerce in Australia. In the United Kingdom, The FSA (Financial Services Authority)[32] is the competent authority for most aspects of the Payment Services Directive (PSD).The UK implemente d the PSD through the Payment Services Regulations 2009 (PSRs), which came into effect on 1 November 2009. The PSR affects firms providing payment services and their customers. These firms include banks, non-bank credit card issuers and non-bank merchant acquirers, e-money issuers, etc. The PSRs created a new class of regulated firms known as payment institutions (Pls), who are subject to prudential requirements. Article 87 of the PSD requires the European Commission to report on the implementation and impact of the PSD by 1 November 2012. 33] Forms[edit] Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from ordering â€Å"digital† ontent for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to â€Å"meta† services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce. On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integri ty and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce.Aside from traditional e-commerce, m-Commerce as well as the nascent t- Commerce[34] channels are often seen as the current 2013 poster children of electronic I-Commerce. Global trends[edit] In 2010, the United Kingdom had the biggest e-commerce market in the world when measured by the amount spent per capita. [35] The Czech Republic is the European country where ecommerce delivers the biggest contribution to the enterprises' total revenue. Almost a quarter (24%) of the countrys total turnover is generated via the online channel. 36] Among emerging economies, China's e-commerce presence continues[when? ] to expand. With 384 million internet users, China's online shopping sales rose to $36. 6 billion in 2009 and one of the reasons behind the huge growth has been the improved trust level for shoppers. The Chinese retailers have been able to help consumers feel more comfortable shopping online. [37] China's cross- border e-commerce is also growing rapidly. E-commerce transactions between China and other countries increased 32% to 2. 3 trillion yuan ($375. 8 billion) in 2012 and accounted for 9. % of China's total international trade [38] Other BRIC countries are witnessing the accelerated growth of ecommerce as well. In Russia, the total ecommerce market is projected to total somewhere between 690 billion rubles ($23 billion) and 900 billion rubles ($30 billion) in 201 5, at 2010 values. This will equal 5% of total retail volume in Russia. Longer-term, the market size of Russian e-commerce could reach $50 billion by 2020. Brazil's ecommerce is growing quickly with retail ecommerce sales expected to grow at a healthy double-digit pace through 2014.By 2016, eMarketer expects retail ecommerce sales in Brazil to reach $17. 3 billion. [39] India's ecommerce growth, on the other hand, has been slower although the country's potential remains solid considering its surging economy, the rapid growth of internet penetration, English language proficiency and a vast market of 1. billion consumers (although perhaps only 50 million access the internet throug n PCs and some estimate the most active group of e-commerce customers numbers only 2-3 million). E-commerce traffic grew about 50% from 2011 to 2012, from 26. 1 million to 37. million, according to a report released by Com Score. Still much of the estimated 14 billion dollars in 2012 ecommerce was generated from travel sites. ecommerce is also expanding across the Middle East. Having recorded the world's fastest growth in internet usage between 2000 and 2009, the region is now[when? ] home to more than 0 million internet users. Retail, travel and gaming are the region's top ecommerce segments, in spite of difficulties such as the lack of region-wide legal frameworks and logistical problems in cross-border transportation[citation needed].E-commerce has become an important tool for small and large businesses worldwide, not only to s ell to customers, but also to engage them. [40][41] In 2012, ecommerce sales topped $1 trillion for the first time in history. [42] Impact on markets and retailers[edit] Economists have theorized that e-commerce ought to lead to intensified rice competition, as it increases consumers' ability to gather information about products and prices.Research by four economists at the University of Chicago has found that the growth of online shopping has also affected industry structure in two areas that have seen significant growth in e-commerce, bookshopsand travel agencies. Generally, larger firms are able to use economies of scale and offer lower prices. The lone exception to this pattern has been the very smallest category of bookseller, shops with between one and four employees, which appear to have withstood the trend. [43] E Commerce Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or ecommerce, is a type of industry where the buying and selling of products or services is conducted over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDILinventory management systems, and automated data collection systems.Modern electronic commerce typically uses he World Wide Web at least at one point in the transaction's life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as e-mail, mobile devices, social media, and telephones as well. Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of business transactions. This is an effective and efficient way of communicating within an organization and one of the most effective and useful ways of conducting business. E-commerce can be divided into:E-tailing or â€Å"virtual storefronts† on websites with online catalogs, sometimes gathered into a â€Å"virtual mall† Buying or Selling on various websites and/or online marketplaces The gathering and use of demographic data through Web contacts and social media Electronic Data Interchange (ED'), the business-to-business exchange of data E-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospective and established customers (for example, with newsletters) Business-to-business buying and selling The security of business transactions Types of e-commerce[edit] The major different types of e-commerce are:Business-to-Business (82B): 82B e-commerce is simply defined as e-commerce between companies. This is the type of e-commerce that deals with relationships between and among businesses. About 80% of e-commerce is of this type, and most experts predict that 82B e- commerce will continue to grow faster than the B2C segment. The 82B market has two primary components: e-frastructure and e-markets. Business-to-consumer (B2C): Business-to-consumer e-commerce, or commerce between companies and consumers, involves customers gathering information; purchasing physical goods i. . , tangibles such as books or consumer products) or information goods (or goods of electronic material or digitized content, such as software, or e-books); and, for information goods, receiving products over an electronic network. It is the second largest and the earliest form of e-commerce. Business-to-Government (826): Business-to-government e-commerce or B2G is generally defined as commerce between companies and the public sector. It refers to the use of the Internet for public procurement, licensing procedures, and other government-related operations.This kind of e-commerce has two features: first, the public sector assumes a pilot/ leading role in establishing e-co mmerce; and second, it is assumed that the public sector nas the greatest need tor making its procurement system more ettective. Web- based purchasing policies increase the transparency of the procurement process (and reduces the risk of irregularities). To date, however, the size of the B2G e- commerce market as a component of total e-commerce is insignificant, as government e-procurement systems remain undeveloped. Consumer-to-consumer (C2C):Consumer-to-consumer e-commerce or C2C is simply commerce between private individuals or consumers. This type of e-commerce is characterized by the growth of electronic marketplaces and online auctions, particularly in vertical industries where firms/businesses can bid for what they want from among multiple suppliers. It perhaps has the greatest potential for developing new markets. Mobile Commerce (m-commerce): M-commerce (mobile commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services through wireless technology-i. e. , handheld devices suc h as cellular telephones and personal digital assistants (PDAs).Japan is seen as a global leader in m-commerce. As content delivery over wireless devices becomes faster, more secure, and scalable, some believe that m-commerce will surpass wireline e-commerce as the method of choice for digital commerce transactions. This may well be true for the Asia-Pacific where there are more mobile phone users than there are Internet users. Governmental regulation[edit] In the United States, some electronic commerce activities are regulated by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). These activities include the use of commercial e- mails, online advertising and consumer privacy.The CAN-SPAM Act of 2003 establishes national standards for direct marketing over e-mail. The Federal Trade Commission Act regulates all forms of advertising, including online advertising, and states that advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive. [24] Using its authority under Section 5 of the FTC Act, which prohibits u nfair or deceptive practices, the FTC has brought a number of cases to enforce the promises in corporate privacy statements, including promises about the security of consumers' personal information. [25] As result, any corporate privacy policy related to e- ommerce activity may be subject to enforcement by the FTC.The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008, which came into law in 2008, amends the Controlled Substances Act to address online pharmacies. [26] Internationally there is the International Consumer Protection and Enforcement Network (ICPEN), which was formed in 1991 from an informal network of government customer fair trade organisations. The purpose was stated as being to find ways of co-operating on tackling consumer problems connected with cross-border transactions in both goods and services, and to help ensure exchanges of nformation among the participants for mutual benefit and understanding.From this came Econsumer. gov, an ICPEN initiative since April 2001. It is a portal to report complaints about online and related transactions with foreign companies. There is also Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) was established in 1989 with the vision of achieving stability, security and prosperity for the region through free and open trade and investment. APEC has an Electronic Commerce Stearing Group as well as working on common privacy regulations throughout the APEC region. In Australia,Trade is covered under Australian Treasury Guidelines tor electronic commerce, [27] and the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission[28] regulates and offers advice on how to deal with businesses online,[29] and offers specific advice on what happens if things go wrong. [30] Also Australian government e-commerce website[31] provides information on e-commerce in Australia. In the United Kingdom, The FSA (Financial Services Authority)[32] is the competent authority for most aspects of the Payment Services Directive (PSD).The UK implemente d the PSD through the Payment Services Regulations 2009 (PSRs), which came into effect on 1 November 2009. The PSR affects firms providing payment services and their customers. These firms include banks, non-bank credit card issuers and non-bank merchant acquirers, e-money issuers, etc. The PSRs created a new class of regulated firms known as payment institutions (Pls), who are subject to prudential requirements. Article 87 of the PSD requires the European Commission to report on the implementation and impact of the PSD by 1 November 2012. 33] Forms[edit] Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from ordering â€Å"digital† ontent for immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to â€Å"meta† services to facilitate other types of electronic commerce. On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integri ty and security are very hot and pressing issues for electronic commerce.Aside from traditional e-commerce, m-Commerce as well as the nascent t- Commerce[34] channels are often seen as the current 2013 poster children of electronic I-Commerce. Global trends[edit] In 2010, the United Kingdom had the biggest e-commerce market in the world when measured by the amount spent per capita. [35] The Czech Republic is the European country where ecommerce delivers the biggest contribution to the enterprises' total revenue. Almost a quarter (24%) of the countrys total turnover is generated via the online channel. 36] Among emerging economies, China's e-commerce presence continues[when? ] to expand. With 384 million internet users, China's online shopping sales rose to $36. 6 billion in 2009 and one of the reasons behind the huge growth has been the improved trust level for shoppers. The Chinese retailers have been able to help consumers feel more comfortable shopping online. [37] China's cross- border e-commerce is also growing rapidly. E-commerce transactions between China and other countries increased 32% to 2. 3 trillion yuan ($375. 8 billion) in 2012 and accounted for 9. % of China's total international trade [38] Other BRIC countries are witnessing the accelerated growth of ecommerce as well. In Russia, the total ecommerce market is projected to total somewhere between 690 billion rubles ($23 billion) and 900 billion rubles ($30 billion) in 201 5, at 2010 values. This will equal 5% of total retail volume in Russia. Longer-term, the market size of Russian e-commerce could reach $50 billion by 2020. Brazil's ecommerce is growing quickly with retail ecommerce sales expected to grow at a healthy double-digit pace through 2014.By 2016, eMarketer expects retail ecommerce sales in Brazil to reach $17. 3 billion. [39] India's ecommerce growth, on the other hand, has been slower although the country's potential remains solid considering its surging economy, the rapid growth of internet penetration, English language proficiency and a vast market of 1. billion consumers (although perhaps only 50 million access the internet throug n PCs and some estimate the most active group of e-commerce customers numbers only 2-3 million). E-commerce traffic grew about 50% from 2011 to 2012, from 26. 1 million to 37. million, according to a report released by Com Score. Still much of the estimated 14 billion dollars in 2012 ecommerce was generated from travel sites. ecommerce is also expanding across the Middle East. Having recorded the world's fastest growth in internet usage between 2000 and 2009, the region is now[when? ] home to more than 0 million internet users. Retail, travel and gaming are the region's top ecommerce segments, in spite of difficulties such as the lack of region-wide legal frameworks and logistical problems in cross-border transportation[citation needed].E-commerce has become an important tool for small and large businesses worldwide, not only to s ell to customers, but also to engage them. [40][41] In 2012, ecommerce sales topped $1 trillion for the first time in history. [42] Impact on markets and retailers[edit] Economists have theorized that e-commerce ought to lead to intensified rice competition, as it increases consumers' ability to gather information about products and prices.Research by four economists at the University of Chicago has found that the growth of online shopping has also affected industry structure in two areas that have seen significant growth in e-commerce, bookshopsand travel agencies. Generally, larger firms are able to use economies of scale and offer lower prices. The lone exception to this pattern has been the very smallest category of bookseller, shops with between one and four employees, which appear to have withstood the trend. [43]